A Forgotten Promise: The United States’ Imperial Conquest of the Philippines

By Samuel Marks

Each decade brings forth a plethora of boundless history and significant events. Naturally, some events garner more attention than others, relegating some crucial and fascinating historical events to the annals of history. One often neglected chapter of history is the American campaign of imperialism, particularly in the Philippines. Through exploration of the initial decade of the 1900s, this piece sheds light on one of the often overlooked monstrosities of American foreign policy and ideology. This pseudo-Pax Americana philosophy highlights a contrast between a nation that promulgated dominant cultural narratives centered on freedom and liberty, while simultaneously establishing a hegemonic dominance over the Philippines.  

Throughout the nineteenth century, industrialized and formidable nations took to the seas to grow their vast empires to see their nation’s flag fly high in foreign lands. This was the fantasy of many superpowers of the time, including Great Britain, France, Spain, but most importantly the United States, especially entering the twentieth century. The United States entered the proverbial “game” of imperialization and land conquest much later than their European counterparts, but used equally brutal and savage means to acquire their territories (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, a). While some believed that imperialism was a necessary step for a burgeoning nation such as the United States, others viewed the practice as inherently contrasting to the morals of the founding fathers. After all, suppression of freedom is what the United States has been fighting against since its conception. This discrepancy between the United States’ original mission of independence and the fate faced by its subjected territories and nations is particularly evident in the United States’ campaign in the Philippines.

Contextualizing American Expansion 

American imperialism began in earnest with the onset of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Many causes catalyzed this conflict, ranging from Spain’s establishment of concentration camps in Cuba, to the De Lome letter criticizing the American government, but the most critical junction was the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The U.S.S. Maine was an American naval warship sent to protect Havana, but was believed to have been attacked by the Spanish (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, c). The veracity of the ship’s true fate is fairly inconsequential, as the event led to war. The conflict itself was a short American campaign that the United States won within mere months. As a result, the U.S. and Spain signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris, which concluded the war and granted independence to Cuba. The most important facet of the treaty was the United States’ purchase of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines for $20 million (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, c.). Currently, that is valued at about $750,000,000 (CPI Inflation Calculator, nd). Although the United States promised independence to Cuba and the Philippines, they were subsequently imperialized by the United States. Despite the intense brutality in Cuba, the United States’ imperial campaign in the Philippines was far more ghastly. During the war against the Spanish, the United States had promised to support Filipino nationalist leader Emilio Aguinaldo, who was critical in helping the United States remove the Spanish from power (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, b). However, after the conclusion of the war, America’s true intentions were revealed and they took control of the Philippines. Aguinaldo, who had been forcibly isolated via manipulation by the U.S. government, did not initially learn of this news due to efforts to leave him intentionally uninformed. However, when Aguinaldo learned of the reality faced by the Philippines, he called for the Philippine Republic to take up arms, stating that he and his followers desired independence and had fought against the Spanish for the United States on such pretenses. Aguinaldo claimed that he did not seek a mere possession change amongst foreign powers for his people, but desired the legitimate independence that had been promised by the American government when they initially allied (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, b). The result was a brutal guerilla war to be launched against the United States.

U.S. Aggression in the Philippines

The American campaign to maintain hegemony over the Philippines was a barbaric and inhumane war, lasting from 1899 to 1902 (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, b). The Philippine insurgency was immediately met by the U.S. with the Spanish practice of reconcentration. The practice of reconcentration forces many people, including largely civilian populations, into small guarded camps to force/ward off insurgents from supporters. These camps were maintained in abysmally poor condition, leading to many deaths from starvation, diseases, etc. (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, c). The irony of the United States’ employment of reconcentration is that it was one of the defining reasons for their entry into the Spanish-American War.

 The Americans’ campaign to ensure their dominance also included burning crops, destroying villages, and torturing captives. There were over 220,000 Philippine deaths during the three-year conflict, a heavy majority of these being civilian casualties (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, b). These high death totals were the primary contributing factor to the end of the war. After the war, splinter cell groups of Filipino nationalists continued to fight from 1903-1913, but with little success. In the end, it took the United States 48 years to fulfill the promise they made to the Filipino people, granting them independence in 1946 (Encyclopædia Britannica, nd, b).

Conclusion

Although the Philippines eventually gained independence, it was far later than when they deserved. It is often forgotten outside of the Philippines that at one point, the United States was their captor and led a brutal campaign to ensure it remained as such. As history inevitably continues, this event should elicit reflection on the paradox that exists between a nation that claims to advocate for the freedom and liberation of its people while, in conjunction, perpetuating the subjugation of other nations and peoples through imperialism. Acknowledging these ills allows for advancement in American society, as ignoring and/or denying the misdeeds of the country will create cultural stagnation and failure. In the end, acceptance of the nation’s past realities enables the citizens of this great country to truly understand the principles of liberty and freedom the nation was founded upon. 

References:

CPI Inflation Calculator. (n.d.). Inflation Rate Between 1898-2023. https://www.officialdata.org/us/inflation/1898?amount=20000000 

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Imperialism. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/imperialism 

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Philippine-American War. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Philippine-American-WarEncyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Spanish-American War. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-American-War